Tartu Ülikooli ajaloo küsimusi

Kunst või teadus? Saateks

Lea Leppik — 2023-12-08

Kuidas taimed pildiks said? Teadusillustratsioonide publitseerimisest 19. sajandil Carl Friedrich von Ledebouri teose "Icones plantarum novarum" näitel

Ingrid Sahk — 2023-12-08

The 1826–27 Altai expedition played a crucial role in the career of
University of Tartu professor of botany C. F. v. Ledebour and its results
were shown in travel journals and “Flora Altaica”—a systematic
overview of plant species. During the expedition, the scientists
described 1600 plant species, including 500 new ones. In order to introduce
new, previously unknown plant species, Ledebour considered
it necessary to print a separate series of illustrations: the “Icones
plantarum novarum”—an edition with 500 (sic!) colour plates.
There had been previous attempts to depict Russia’s flora in illustrations
(“Flora Rossica” by Paul Simon Pallas), yet those attempts
often remained unfinished and the published illustrations numbered
less than 100. Thus, Ledebour’s edition, with its 500 folio-sized book
plates, was an extremely grand project for its time. The budget for
printing the illustrations exceeded the costs of the entire expedition
several times over. The budget draft, still preserved in the archive,
expressively demonstrated various stages of 19th century scientific illustration
publishing as well as the largest expenses: the majority of
the funds was spent on hand-colouring and drawing the illustrations
on printing paper according to herbarium sheets. Sufficient funding
was only provided thanks to the support of the Imperial power: the
Emperor pre-ordered 75 black and white and 25 coloured, “deluxe”
volumes of the entire edition.
The 500 illustrations are accompanied by the names of six different
authors: W. Krüger, E. Bommer, F. Scheffner, D. von der Pahlen,
W. Müller, C. von Ungern Sternberg. In addition, there are a few
dozen anonymous pages, most likely drawn by A. Hagen. All of those
listed above were, in some way or another, connected to the University of Tartu drawing school, and thus became involved with that
project.
Ledebour’s series of plates is set apart from its predecessors by
the choice of printing technique: the colour plates of “Icones plantarum
novarum” were made using lithography, which was faster and
cheaper than earlier intaglio printing. Due to the fact that Tartu did
not have a lithography workshop at the time, the illustrations were
printed in Munich. Illustrations of Altai plants, drawn in Tartu after
herbarium sheets, were lithographed—transferred to stone slabs—by
Wilhelm Siegrist, with the exception of just the last 5 pages that have
Prestele’s name on them. Lithographic engraving, a special technique
used by Siegrist, ensured that the resulting artwork boasted very
fine and precise lines.
It is remarkable that such a resource and labour-intensive task
was successfully completed as planned. “Icones plantarum novarum”
was published in 10-page folios, 10 folios (100 plates) per year, with a
total of 500 plates published between 1829–34 (with the only exception
being the years 1831–32, when 100 illustrations were published
in two years). The final print number is unknown, as different
versions of the information are present in the archives. The artistic
level of the final result is also significant: plant illustrations printed
using lithography (or lithographic engraving, to be precise) are very
detailed and clean, the coloured versions being especially charming
and easily deserving to be named among the most beautiful botanical
illustrations of the 19th century.
Publishing such series of illustrations demanded great entrepreneurship
and various significant choices in process management
from the scientists involved. This might have been a great workload,
but it was justified, as it was done in the name of promoting scientific
discoveries. However, “Flora Rossica”, Ledebour’s scientific magnum
opus, the first comprehensive overview of Russia’s flora, was published
years later merely in a 4-volume book series without a single
illustration.

Pildid impeeriumi teenistuses: Richard Maacki Amuuri raamatu illustratsioonidest

Indrek Jääts — 2023-12-08

In 1855, the Siberian Department of the Imperial Russian Geographical
Society (SOIRGO) sent an expedition to the Amur River
under the leadership of Richard Maack. The Amur, hitherto almost
unknown to Europeans, was part of the Chinese Empire, and Russia
was in the process of occupying it. Thus, information was needed. The
man behind the operation was the Governor-General of East Siberia
(and SOIRGO curator) Nikolai Muravyov. Based on the results of the
expedition, Maack wrote a book, Путешествие на Амур (Trip to the
Amur River, 1859). This article focuses on the drawings, maps and
plans that accompanied the book.
The expedition led by Maack and the book published about it
were part of the academic and symbolic conquest of Amur. The main
message of the book was that Amur now belonged to Russia, its first
scientific explorer and civiliser of this remote and savage region. A
portfolio of illustrations and maps accompanying the book undoubtedly
helped to spread and amplify this message. These images were
re-used in several European publications.
The Amur expedition was not accompanied by a professional artist.
Maack had to draw the landscapes and ethnographic objects
himself. His travelling companion, Georg Gerstfeldt also made ethnographic
drawings. The maps were sketched by topographer Alexander
Sondhagen. The pictures accompanying the book were made by
the artist Karl Huhn from Maack’s drawings. The extent to which
he altered the original material is not known, as none of Maack`s
drawings have been found so far. Gerstfeldt’s drawings were probably
not used. Some of the drawings published were based on objects and
plant specimens brought back from the expedition, while others were
copied from Egor Meyer, an artist who travelled to Amur in parallel

with Maack. It has not been possible to identify the author and origin
of each picture due to lack of information.
The addition of a luxurious and expensive portfolio of illustrations
to the book was the initiative of Stepan Solovyov, a patriotic tycoon
and philanthropist of the arts. The book and the portfolio cost him a
total of around 25,000 roubles. The Imperial Russian Geographical
Society and its Siberian branch did not have this kind of financial
resources. Without Solovyov’s support, Maack’s book would probably
have been published in a much cheaper form and without illustrations.
Its message, which, thanks to Solovyov’s generous help, would
have resounded across Europe, would have been much weaker and
more muted. The role played by private capital in promoting and advocating
Russian imperial expansion was therefore remarkable in
this case.
The title page of the portfolio is very impressive, one could say
triumphant, inspired by Russian imperialism and colonialism. This
is not so evident in the ethnographic drawings. The artists (Maack,
Meyer, Huhn) probably tried to depict the Amur peoples as truthfully
as possible, to be scientifically accurate. For a more in-depth analysis,
comparing Huhn’s images with their source material would be
necessary.

Etnograafilised joonistused Eesti Rahva Muuseumis: liivi välitöömaterjalide näide

Piret Koosa — 2023-12-08

The primary purpose of ethnographic illustration has been to clarify
the text, and to visualize verbal descriptions. In a drawing it is
possible to distinctly convey, for example, constructional structures
or patterns, the verbal description of which would be much more time-
consuming and complicated. The role of ethnographic drawings in
anthropology and museum work has changed considerably over time,
both in terms of technological development and methodological and
ideological rethinking, but they still offer a wealth of opportunities to
create, mediate, and expand anthropological knowledge.
In this article, I will present a brief overview of the development
and contents of the drawings collection at the Estonian National Museum
(ENM). The article focuses on materials from fieldwork trips
to Livonian villages in the late 1960s and 1970s. The formal part
of the visual documentation of these trips consists of ethnographic
drawings and photographs, but alongside this material, I also pay
attention to the illustrations in field work diaries and reflect on these
sketches in light of some ideas proposed by authors promoting
graphic ethnography.
The ENM’s collection of ethnographic drawings includes nearly
24,000 pages of drawings. Since many of these pages have several
drawings (sometimes of the same object, sometimes of completely
different objects), the number of individual drawings is considerably
higher. Approximately 75% of the drawings document Estonian peasant
architecture. In addition to traditional buildings, the drawings
in the collection also depict items of traditional clothing, textiles,
tools and utensils.
The formal part of the graphic material from the Livonian fieldwork
trips aptly reflects the array of what has been represented
through ethnographic drawings, and how. By comparing the drawings

with photos of the same objects and looking at the descriptions in
the fieldwork diaries, it appears that although the main purpose of
making ethnographic drawings was documenting objects and visual
information, this did not necessarily mean that what was observed
was accurately imitated in the drawing.
The written entries in field diaries of these trips were also illustrated
with drawings. These drawings were not made with regard to
technical accuracy, which was considered important in the formal
ethnographical drawing. Rather, the nature of these illustrations
is more private, and they were not necessarily meant to be seen by
a wider public. The informal nature of these drawings allowed the
drawers to expressively capture and reflect the experience and mood
of fieldwork. As such, this material has the potential to enrich the
“formal ethnographic data” collected during field trips.

Illustratsioonidest bioloogiadoktor August Vaga loodusloolistes kirjutistes

Mari Nõmmela — 2023-12-08

The tradition of using illustrative material in teaching and research
became rooted in universities in the 19th century and continued into
the 20th century using new methods of treatment. It was self-evident
that biologists, geographers and ethnographers could make drawings
of what was being researched and described. The tools of natural
scientists included sketching skills and mastery of other graphic devices.
Although World Wars I and II brought groundbreaking changes
into Estonian higher education policy, including the selection of
staff, the use of illustrative material in teaching and research at the
Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences at the University of
Tartu (later Faculty of Biology and Geography of Tartu State University)
continued and broadened.
Doctor of Biology August Vaga (1893–1960) started to study natural
science at the University of Tartu before World War I and grew
into a natural scientist in the 1920s–1930s. He graduated from the
university in 1923 with the degree of Master of Natural Science and
continued researching problems of plant taxonomy and morphology
at the university in 1931. Meanwhile, from 1923–1931, he worked
as a teacher of natural science in secondary schools and participated
in the reform of the Estonian school system. He translated the
textbook of zoology by Juli[us] Nikolayevich Vagner (1865–1945) into
Estonian, compiled the curriculum in zoology and wrote a textbook of
botany for secondary schools. The reprints of the book with the author’s
amendments were used until 1944.
Having begun research at the Laboratory of Plant Morphology and
Taxonomy at the University of Tartu under Professor of Botany Teodor
Lippmaa, August Vaga delved into the problems of plant anatomy
and ecology. In 1940, he defended his doctoral thesis on theoretical
problems of phytocoenology and continued to research this theme
during World War II and in the post-war years. Working as Head of

the Department of Plant Taxonomy and Geobotany at the University
of Tartu from 1944–1956, Professor Vaga initiated the publication of
the compendium Estonian Flora. Being one of the main authors of
the compendium, he also studied theoretical problems of geobotany,
history of botany, etc.
From his gardener father, August Vaga had inherited an interest
in nature and a talent for art. The schoolbooks illustrated by August
Vaga and the drawings, maps, etc. he made as a scientist for
his research articles and study materials provide an example how
the distinct visuals – illustrations, drawings or photos – played their
role in mediation of knowledge under different political regimes. In
retrospect, Professor August Vaga has been highly appreciated as a
lecturer and scientist at the University of Tartu, but his artistic side
has remained unnoticed.
As a good drawer, August Vaga could capture the forms of nature,
organise surfaces by lines and texture, see the general whole, but also
the details. While working as a secondary school teacher, he applied
his artistic talent to illustrating textbooks. The drawings of plants
in botany textbooks have been realistic and the species are clearly
recognisable. Realistic plant drawings were soon replaced with
schematic tissue and cell structures illustrating his research papers.
Publication of research papers added the experience of treating the
scientific drawing as a language of international communication. The
significance of drawings as auxiliary material for research papers
kept increasing. In the years of Soviet occupation, the drawings in
the publications helped overcome several gaps in the command of
language in international scientific communication.

Tartu Ülikooli "Inimese anatoomia õpiku" I ja II osa illustreerimisest aastatel 2009-2021

Rauno Thomas Moss — 2023-12-08

In this article, the author focuses on research and review of his
creative, artistic practice, interweaving an objective analysis of the
task of scientific illustration in the 21st century with personal reflections
and memories, in order to shed light on his experience of working
as an illustrator of medical textbooks on human anatomy. The
author’s goal is to retrospectively describe the work process and the
arguments established during its course which shaped the final result.
The main purpose of a scientific drawing or illustration is to explain
and to provide the reader with relevant and supporting content-
related information through visual material. At this point, the
value or, to put it more subjectively – the quality – of the scientific
illustration is determined by the accuracy and concreteness of the
visual description and, at the same time, by the appropriate simplification
and generalization of what is depicted. But what remains
the advantage of illustration, even in the 21st century? The list of
such statements would include the following: a) illustrations make it
easier for us to understand information; b) illustrations make using
the product (including scientific or popular scientific texts) more pleasant
(adding delight); c) illustrations awaken the imagination of the
reader and the viewer, for visual memory images may help to acquire
and remember information; d) illustrations help to overcome cultural
differences.
In the course of its natural unfolding, academic cooperation at the
University of Tartu led to the author's conversations with anatomists
about the need to update the Estonian anatomy textbook for institutions
of higher education. At one point, the anatomists needed an
artist. Rumor has it that Rauno Thomas Moss was not the only candidate
mentioned by Professor Emeritus Arne Lepp in a private conversation, but without revealing any names. Since all the circumstances
followed their natural development and so-called coincidences, conversations
and deliberations between Prof. Arne Lepp, Prof. Helle
Tapfer, Prof. Andres Arend and Liina Pärnsalu were probably decisive
at some point.
All illustrations went through repeated checks and sometimes corrections
and refinements, or they were redone completely, by starting
over from the view depicted in the drawing. The author warm-heartedly
remembers how prof. Arne Lepp gave him an introduction
– before creating the illustrations – which essentially consisted of a
personal lecture, delivered with much internal fire and enthusiasm,
describing the construction of the knee joint. Thanks to prof. Arne
Lepp's successful lecture on the construction of the knee joint, the
artist was able to create a greater number of illustrations and views.
Thus, Arne Lepp himself later recalled that thanks to these detailed
drawings, he was compelled to (and was able to) somewhat rewrite
the given chapter, mentioning more aspects and details than was
originally planned. Though it may seem unorthodox, this is still an
example of very good cooperation.
In the work process, the entire realization of the illustrations
really consisted of manual work. By the time the artist created the
illustrations for the second part of the textbook, he had already lost
a bit of his sight and learned through making mistakes that he could
not work on illustrations for more than 1.5 to 2 hours a day. Some
views of the heart could be drawn at the design stage, maybe even
ten times, and already more or less completed works were begun five
times in a row. But all this was always accompanied by very exciting
substantive knowledge and facts that the professor shared.

Teaduse ja teadusliku kujundistu peegeldusi Nõukogude Eesti vaba- ja raamatugraafikas

Elnara Taidre — 2023-12-08

It must be said that in Soviet Estonian graphic art the topics of
science and research have been interpreted not in the heroic manner
common to the Social Realism artistic canon, but rather either as
mundane-poetic, or, what is even somewhat mystifying, as symbolist
style. At the same time, those “invisible” objects of research which
by their nature were either too small or too grand to be perceived
by the human eye became an important motive and justification for
experiments in the more abstract and conceptual style associated
with significant artistic liberation and innovation of the 1960s. Firstly,
illustrating scientific literature (in addition to earning a living in
their chosen field) offered artists greater freedom, since visualisation
of complicated scientific concepts demanded great imagination
and creative imagery. Secondly, the non-artistic imagery (originating
from a different visual system) borrowed from scientific illustrations
became, in turn, a significant source that markedly enriched the
“vocabulary” of the visual art of the age. Thirdly, a new type of artistresearcher
emerged, whose search for and production of knowledge
was largely carried out using visual materials and means, thus anticipating
the field of artist-research that has become increasingly
relevant today. It is notable that the thematics of science oriented
towards innovations in knowledge also inspired works that renewed
the language of art.

Värvid apteegis. Meditsiini, teaduse ja kunsti seostest varauusaegses Tallinnas

Hannes Vinnal — 2023-12-08

The purpose of this article is to examine the role of pharmacies in the
dye and pigment trade in the early modern era. Archival materials
in Tallinn seem to show that the role of the pharmacy in dye and pigment
trade was primarily consolidated in the 17th century. This was
fostered by various municipal and national regulations that aimed to
bring order to the commercial life of the town. It was complemented
by the fact that several of the pigments and dyes were simultaneously
used for medicinal purposes. Some were also poisonous, and
officials endeavoured to keep the trade in toxic materials under the
jurisdiction of the pharmacy, where it was easier to control.
There is information that the position of pharmacies in the dye
and pigment trade was shaken by the end of the 18th century. It is likely
that the liberal trade policies of Catherine the Great promoted a
situation where an increasing number of goods previously found only
in pharmacies began to make their way to spice and general stores.
In addition, the development of chemistry as a science hand in hand
with the chemical industry moved dyes and pigments more and more
to specialised chemist`s and dye shops. We may consider the possibility
that the process was facilitated by the deconstruction, in the age
of Enlightenment, of centuries-long mythical-alchemical connections
between dyes and medicine.
The archival materials of Tallinn’s pharmacies also reflect the
colour palette of its age, in all its motley glory—from the most valuable
pigments to everyday paints. Whereas 16th century lists contain,
on average, a dozen dyes, a price list from 1695 includes almost
60 of them. Moving even further forward in time, the 1769 inventory
of the Town Hall Pharmacy lists approximately 40 products in
stock. Such a quantity of polychrome materials seems to be richer
than previously identified historical material used in technical art
history research projects and conservation works, as confirmed by
instrumental analyses. The juxtaposition of archival materials and
artistic heritage and their study in tandem using means of modern
materials research will doubtless open many new exciting research
opportunities.

Kui sügav on maalipragu?

Maria Hansar — 2023-12-08

Using restoration work carried out on the ruined frescoes of the
Cathedral of St. Francis of Assisi and re-materialisation projects of
Factum Arte artworks, this paper describes the contradictory situation
where the concept of material authenticity changes with the
emergence of new imaging technologies. It is possible to create a physical
work of art from a collection of digital data that duplicates the
original even in situations in which the original can no longer be
used in the process of reproduction. In principle this creates a novel
pattern of communicative perception between the observer and the
work of art. These changes are based on experimental technological
innovation where hard- and software development occurs hand in
hand with experiments and constant feedback in an attempt to map
and comprehend physical aspects of the artwork in as much detail as
possible.

Joonistused ja fotod mikroskoobipreparaatidest Tartu Ülikooli muuseumi kogudes

Sirje Sisask — 2023-12-08

Microscopes are fascinating tools that can make the invisible visible.
They are useful educational and scientific aids that have been used
for a few hundred years and besides real life observations, photos and
drawings of what can be seen have been captured. The museum of the
University of Tartu has a collection of various drawings and photos of
microscopic preparations that have been used in teaching medicine
at the university.
These photos and drawings have significant historic, scientific
and cultural value. Many photos in this collection have their author
listed as Dr Kull, whereas most drawings do not have an author listed.
Drawings have captions in Estonian as well as some in Russian;
however, originally, these were written in German using Latin terminology.
It is assumed that most of the drawings were likely illustrated
by university students when making preparations and using
microscopes as part of their practicum. It is assumed that these, now
useful study aids and fascinating museum items, were made in the
first half of the 20th century.
The collection of specimens used in these photos and drawings
is diverse. The majority of them are of various human and animal
tissues, along with some photos and drawings which are able to show
processes such as cell proliferation. Even the processes happening in
the nucleus of a cell can be seen. Microscopic views of human bone,
pancreas, ovary, kidney and even an unborn child’s eye are all examples
of what can be seen in these interesting photos and drawings.

Tartu Ülikooli muuseumi 2022. aasta aruanne

Jaanika Anderson — 2023-12-08